Medically Reviewed |
Last reviewed by
Chibawanye Ene, M.D., Ph.D,
Barbara O'Brien, M.D. and
Martin Tom, M.D.
on
February 11, 2026
Brain tumors form when cells in the brain form a mass and start multiplying rapidly. These tumors can be either benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).
Malignant brain tumors
Malignant brain tumors are cancer. They tend to grow quickly and can invade and destroy nearby tissue.
These tumors are either primary brain cancer or secondary brain cancer.
Primary brain cancer starts in the brain.
Secondary brain cancers start in some other part of the body, like the breasts, lungs or colon, then spread to the brain. These tumors are also called brain metastases. Brain metastases are much more common than primary brain tumors. Learn more about brain metastases.
While primary brain tumors can spread within the brain, they usually do not spread outside the brain.
Benign brain tumors
Benign brain tumors are primary brain tumors, meaning they start in the brain. These tumors usually grow more slowly than brain cancer. They also do not invade nearby tissue and structures like cancerous brain tumors do.
While benign brain tumors are generally less dangerous than brain cancer, they can cause serious problems. They may press against and damage normal brain tissue or the spinal cord as they grow, potentially causing symptoms.
Brain structure and function
Emotions, thought, speech, vision, hearing, movement and many more important parts of everyday life begin in the brain. The brain sends messages throughout the body via the spinal cord and cranial nerves in the head. The network of the brain and spinal cord is called the central nervous system (CNS).
The hard, bony skull protects the brain, and the bones of the spine (vertebrae) protect the spinal cord. A liquid called cerebrospinal fluid surrounds both the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain has four main parts:
Cerebrum: The outer and largest part of the brain. The cerebrum has two halves that are called hemispheres. Each hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. The cerebrum is responsible for:
- Emotions
- Reasoning
- Language
- Movement of muscles
- Senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, touch
- Perception of pain
Basal ganglia: These are found deeper inside the brain. They play a part in muscle movement.
Cerebellum: This structure is located at the back of the brain. It helps coordinate smooth movements and balance.
Brainstem: Located just in front of the cerebellum at the juncture of the cerebrum and the spinal cord, the brainstem relays sensory and motor messages between the cerebrum and the rest of the body. This small area is very important and even plays a life-supporting role in functions such as breathing and regulation of your heart rate.
Primary Brain Tumor Types
Brain tumors are classified by the types of cells within the tumor. In addition, many brain tumors, especially gliomas, are classified by their molecular characteristics. These characteristics are caused by changes, or mutations, in the DNA of the tumor cells. DNA is in every cell and tells cells what to do. Some DNA mutations make tumors more aggressive, while others make them less aggressive. Mutations are identified through molecular testing.
Key mutations for brain tumors are found in the ATRX gene, CDKN2A/B genes, IDH gene and TP53 gene, among others. Patients should ask their care team about the molecular characteristics of their tumor and what role these characteristics play in their diagnosis, treatment and prognosis.
Craniopharyngioma
Craniopharyngiomas are non-cancerous, slow growing tumors located near the pituitary gland. Craniopharyngioma appears primarily in children and middle-age adults. The tumor itself can be part solid and part fluid-filled cyst. Symptoms can include vision changes and hormone dysfunction caused by the tumor’s impact on the pituitary gland. These tumors often require treatment with specialized surgery, possibly followed by radiation therapy.
Dermoid cysts and epidermoid tumors
Dermoid cysts and epidermoid tumors are benign growths that arise from epithelial cells, which form the outer layer of the body and line certain organs and glands. They can develop in various parts of the body, including the central nervous system. Both are slow growing, and are often not noticed for decades. They are treated by surgical removal.
Glioma
Gliomas are a class of primary brain tumors.
Gliomas develop from glial cells, which support neurons and perform other essential roles in the brain.
Gliomas are defined by the type of glial cells they develop from, the molecular characteristics of the tumor cells and whether the patient is an adult or child.
Gliomas are graded 1 through 4, with higher grades indicating more aggressive behavior.
Adult-type diffuse gliomas
Adult-type diffuse gliomas spread into normal brain tissue. Some are slow-growing, while others grow quickly.
Adult-type diffuse gliomas include:
Oligodendroglioma: Oligodendrogliomas grow from immature oligodendrocytes, which help protect the nerve fibers in the brain. Oligodendrogliomas are generally slow growing. They can be diagnosed as grade 2 or grade 3 tumors based on their appearance under a microscope. They are also defined by the presence of a 1p19q co-deletion, a genetic marker. They are cancerous because they infiltrate the surrounding normal brain tissue.
Astrocytoma: Astrocytomas are also cancerous tumors. They develop from astrocytes, which provide nourishment to neurons in the brain. They are diagnosed as grade 2, 3 or 4.
Glioblastoma: Glioblastoma is a type of astrocytoma. Glioblastoma is the most common type of primary brain cancer in adults. It is also one of the fastest-growing tumors of the central nervous system. Glioblastomas are always grade 4. Learn more about glioblastoma.
Ependymoma: Ependymomas develop from ependymal cells, which line the ventricles of the brain and the center of the spinal cord. The ventricles are chambers in the brain that produce and transport cerebrospinal fluid, a liquid that surrounds and protects the brain. Most ependymomas are diagnosed in children, but they are also found in adults.
Pediatric gliomas
Pediatric gliomas are a group of tumors that occur primarily in children and young adults. They can be low grade, which tend to be less aggressive, or high grade, which are usually more aggressive. Learn more about pediatric brain tumors.
Hemangioblastoma
These slow-growing tumors develop from the cells of blood vessels. Hemangioblastoma typically forms in the brainstem and cerebellum, but can appear in other locations, including the retina. About a quarter of cases are associated with von Hippel Lindau disease, a genetic condition that is tied to the development of multiple types of tumors and cancers. Hemangioblastomas are not cancer.
Medulloblastoma
Medulloblastoma is the most common pediatric brain cancer. A few hundred cases are diagnosed in adults each year. Learn more on our medulloblastoma page.
Meningioma
Meningioma is the most common primary brain tumor. These tumors develop from cells in the pachymeninges, the protective layer of tissue surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Most are benign and slow growing, but some are malignant and aggressive.
Pineal Gland Tumors
The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and makes melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep. Pineal gland tumors can be benign or malignant. Specific types include pineocytoma, pineoblastoma and pineal parenchymal tumors of intermediate differentiation.
Pituitary Tumors
Pituitary tumors, also called pituitary adenomas, are usually benign (non-cancerous) growths on the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is a key part of the endocrine system, which controls growth and development. Learn more on our pituitary tumor page.
Chordoma
Chordomas are a type of sarcoma, which are tumors that form in the bones and the body’s soft tissues, including cartilage, fat, and muscle. Chordomas can form in many parts of the body, including the spine and base of the skull. When they form in the skull, they can push into the brain and cause many of the same symptoms as brain tumors, including headaches, dizziness and confusion. Chordomas can involve multiple critical nerves and arteries, making them difficult to treat. Treatment may require the use of specialized surgery, radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy.
Who gets brain tumors?
While anyone can get a brain tumor, cases rise as people age. In addition, men develop brain tumors more often than women, and white people are slightly more likely to be diagnosed than other groups.
Symptoms
Some brain tumors grow slowly and may become quite large before causing symptoms. Others may grow quickly and cause a sudden onset of symptoms. Because the skull is rigid, it provides little room for the tumor or brain to move. This can cause brain tumors to increase the pressure in the skull, leading to symptoms such as headaches.
Brain tumors may also invade or press on parts of the brain that control movement, speech, sight or other vital functions, causing symptoms.
Learn more about brain tumor symptoms.
Diagnosis
Diagnosing a brain tumor often requires surgery to retrieve tumor tissue. Doctors examine the tissue to learn what kind of cell the tumor developed from and what genetic mutations tumor cells contain.
Learn more about how brain tumors are diagnosed.
Treatment
Common treatments for brain tumors include surgery, radiation therapy and cancer drugs such as chemotherapy and targeted therapy.
Learn more about brain tumor treatment.
Brain cancer survival rates
There are many different types of brain cancer. The survival rate varies greatly from one cancer to the next. Some types of brain cancer have a high survival rate. For others, the survival rate is lower. Survival rate also depends on how advanced the cancer is at the time it is diagnosed. Patients should talk to their care team about the prognosis for their specific brain cancer.
Seeking a second opinion on a brain tumor diagnosis
There are many types of brain tumors, including benign tumors and cancerous growths. To get the best possible treatment, the exact type of tumor must be correctly diagnosed. Learn more about second opinions.
Primary Brain Tumor Risk Factors
Anything that increases your chance of developing a specific disease is a risk factor. Most brain cancer diagnoses are not connected to any risk factors.
A few brain tumor risk factors have been identified, though, including:
- Family history of certain conditions including:
- Neurofibromatosis type 1 and type 2
- Tuberous sclerosis
- Certain hereditary cancer syndromes, including von Hippel-Lindau disease
- Prior radiation exposure to the brain, often as treatment for another cancer. Most patients who receive radiation to the brain do not develop brain tumors, and the benefits of radiation therapy far outweigh the risks.
Are brain tumors hereditary?
Though rare, some types of brain tumors may be passed down from one generation to the next, if you have a family history of the conditions listed above. Genetic counseling may be right for you. Learn more in about the risk to you and your family on our genetic testing page.
Learn more about brain tumors:
‘How I knew I had a brain tumor’: 4 survivors share their symptoms
Headaches and seizures are common brain tumor symptoms. But they can also be caused by other medical conditions.
So, how can you tell when a symptom is due to a brain tumor? And when should you see a doctor?
For more insight, we spoke with neuro-oncologist Shiao-Pei Weathers, M.D., and four survivors, who shared their first brain tumor symptoms and what led them to see a doctor.
Headache
Shelby Espinosa had had headaches in the past; doctors said they were related to back pain. But at age 22, she got a headache so severe that it caused her to stop mid-conversation.
“I had to stop talking and just hold my head,” she recalls. “It was so intense that I couldn’t think or respond. The pain would come and go, but the headache lingered for three days.”
Her back pain was gone, so she knew this was different. At the urging of her mom and then-fiancé, Shelby went to the emergency room, where she had a CT scan of her brain. Results revealed a tumor the size of a kiwi pressing against her brainstem. She had surgery to remove it, and a biopsy confirmed it was a type of brain tumor called medulloblastoma.
“Headaches that may indicate a brain tumor typically feel distinctly different from headaches you’ve had before,” says Weathers. “For example, people with chronic migraines are used to having headaches, but their headache usually feels the same each time.”
See a doctor if you have a history of headaches and suddenly have a new type of headache. Warning signs could be a headache that:
- wakes you up from sleep
- is worse in the morning
- feels worse when you’re lying flat
- causes nausea and vomiting that won’t go away
“Other potentially concerning signs could be a headache that lingers for days or weeks (especially if you rarely get headaches), or a headache that is accompanied by other symptoms, such as weakness, numbness, tingling or vision changes,” adds Weathers.
This was the case for Sean O’Brien. He was diagnosed with a brain tumor called juvenile pilocytic astrocytoma at age 20. He’d been suffering from a headache for years but didn’t find it too concerning because his family has a history of migraines and allergies. That was until the headache worsened during his sophomore year of college.
“At one point, the headache got so bad I sought out medical services on campus,” recalls Sean. “They told me I was overtired and needed to rest. Eventually, I did start to feel a little better.”
But then more symptoms arose.
He couldn’t sleep at night. And he began having blind spells where his vision would suddenly go out and return after a few moments. This started happening multiple times a day.
“I finally told my parents what was going on, and they got me to a doctor while I was home on Thanksgiving break,” says Sean. “The doctor discovered fluid buildup in my brain, and scans revealed a brain tumor.”
Seizure
Colin Clarke was playing soccer when he felt numbness on the left side of his face under his eye. Moments later, it happened again. Then he passed out.
“The next thing I know, I was on a gurney and put in an ambulance,” says Colin, who was 45 at the time. “I didn’t realize I’d had a seizure. I’d just headed the soccer ball! But I was told I had several seizures in the ambulance.”
He was later diagnosed with a grade II oligodendroglioma.
“A seizure is your body’s way of telling you something is going on medically. Sometimes it could be the hallmark of a new brain tumor that has yet to be discovered,” says Weathers. “But it doesn’t always mean a brain tumor. Any of us can seize under certain circumstances; for example, if your sodium drops low enough. Every person’s threshold to have a seizure is different.”
On two separate occasions, 39-year-old Chris Cook experienced a metallic taste in his mouth. It was subtle and sudden, and he assumed it was due to old cavities. Two weeks later, he noticed the metallic taste again while running with his dog. He began to feel faint. Then he blacked out.
“I woke up to my dog protecting me, first responders and the good Samaritans who called them to help me,” Chris recalls. “It was hard for me to comprehend what was happening, and I could not speak coherently. After a few minutes, I could think clearly, but I was unable to verbally express my thoughts until I was loaded into the ambulance.”
A neurologist diagnosed him with glioblastoma, the most aggressive type of brain tumor.
“A lot of patients think seizures are when your body stiffens all over, and you’re jerking on the ground losing consciousness because that’s what they show on TV,” says Weathers. “But seizures come in different types. It could be a flash of colored lights, stiffening and/or jerking of the face, arm and/or leg, or a period where you’re suddenly confused or unable to speak. It can also be an abnormal and typically foul smell or taste. Seizures usually present the same way each time.”
If it’s your first time having a seizure, see a doctor.
“It may not mean you have a brain tumor, but it could be indicating something else is going on in your body,” says Weathers. “The seizure is a warning sign to seek medical attention.”
Symptoms vary depending on the brain tumor's location
The type of symptom and its severity depend on where the tumor is in the brain.
Weathers classifies brain tumor symptoms into two buckets: global and focal. A global symptom is a more general symptom indicating something is growing in the brain and causing a buildup of pressure. A focal symptom tells you where the tumor likely is in the brain.
“If you have a constant headache for weeks that makes you nauseous or vomit, that’s a global symptom,” explains Weathers. “If you have anything growing in your brain, it will give you a headache if it grows large enough and starts pushing. But that doesn’t tell me exactly where it might be.”
Sometimes a brain tumor can cause a certain symptom based on where it’s growing in the brain. Depending on the location, you may have:
- difficulty speaking or understanding
- changes in vision, like a visual field cut or double vision
- weakness in the face, arm and/or leg
- numbness or tingling in the face, arm and/or leg
- hearing loss
- trouble swallowing
- slurred speech
Data suggests some symptoms are more common with certain types of brain tumors.
“It’s not a perfect correlation, but we tend to see seizures more often in patients with oligodendrogliomas than in patients with astrocytomas,” says Weathers.
Bottom line: See a doctor for new or different brain tumor symptoms
Brain tumor symptoms can be subtle, like a vision change. Or they can be more urgent, like a first-time seizure.
“Whether you visit an emergency room or make an appointment with your primary doctor may depend on the severity of your symptoms and how sick you feel,” notes Weathers. “If you have a new or different symptom that is concerning you or a family member, err on the side of caution. Brain tumor symptoms can mimic those of other medical conditions, so it’s important to see a doctor to get checked out.”
Request an appointment at MD Anderson online or call 1-877-632-6789.
Astrocytoma survivor: Why I joined a targeted therapy clinical trial at UT MD Anderson
Until Groundhog Day 2018, I’d been living a healthy and normal life in Austin with my wife, Amy, and our two young children. Then one day, I woke up with a really bad headache and wound up in the emergency room with suspected meningitis. A few days later, I learned the true culprit: a type of brain tumor called astrocytoma. That diagnosis turned my whole world upside-down.
I chose UT MD Anderson for my astrocytoma treatment for two reasons. The first was a trusted friend and her colleague — both well-regarded neurologists — highly recommended it. The other was that UT MD Anderson had corrected an inaccurate diagnosis for me 10 years earlier, when I had thyroid cancer.
Cancer is no less scary the second time around
You might think that a second cancer diagnosis wouldn’t be as bad as the first, if only because you have some experience with it now and know what to expect. But that wasn’t the case for me.
My brain tumor diagnosis was significantly worse. Being diagnosed with any type of cancer is scary, but my thyroid cancer was never life-threatening. Once UT MD Anderson pathologists corrected my diagnosis, I was treated successfully for it in Atlanta, where I was living at the time. I haven’t had any issues with it since.
This brain tumor diagnosis really sent me down a rabbit hole. A quick online search revealed that life expectancy for people with my type of astrocytoma was not good. My initial oncology team in Austin took one look at the MRI and declared my tumor inoperable. They said it was in a place they couldn’t reach, and moved immediately to a palliative care plan involving chemotherapy and radiation therapy.
Discovering what’s only possible here
Fortunately, my care team at UT MD Anderson disagreed. Dr. Sujit Prabhu is arguably one of the best brain surgeons in the world. He is also an incredibly compassionate human being.
Dr. Prabhu took significant time to get to know Amy and me — and even our extended family. When he had to deliver the worst news of my life, he did it with such care and thoughtfulness that we actually left his office feeling upbeat, thinking, “We can do this.”
I made such a strong connection with Dr. Prabhu that I often share that if I ever have another child, I will name it “Prabhu.”
UT MD Anderson’s faculty and staff are also absolutely top-notch. They recognize that a cancer diagnosis is likely the worst moment of your life. But they lead you gently through the entire process and provide support all along the way. When I told Dr. Prabhu that other oncologists had deemed my tumor inoperable, he paused for a second and said, “Well, maybe for them, it is.”
We scheduled my brain surgery for a few weeks later, and started making plans for additional treatment afterward. But Dr. Prabhu was able to remove so much of the tumor that my team ended up changing my treatment plan. I was able to delay radiation and chemotherapy indefinitely, which made me really happy, as those can have permanent, detrimental effects when applied to the brain.
Instead, I am being monitored more frequently with scans, as astrocytoma is known to recur.
Genetic mutation leads to a clinical trial
In 2021, I also started taking a new targeted therapy drug through a clinical trial at UT MD Anderson. It was a multi-center study being led at UT MD Anderson by neuro-oncologist Dr. Vinay Puduvalli. It involved a drug now known as vorasidenib. My care team said I might be eligible for it because I have a genetic mutation called isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH)-2, which affects an enzyme that triggers cancer growth.
I was apprehensive about joining the trial, as the drug’s potential side effects were fairly significant. It also involved a lot of time and travel between Austin and Houston. But in the end, it was a cutting-edge opportunity to extend my life and a chance to help others facing cancer. So, it wasn’t a hard decision.
Taking a new drug from experimental to FDA-approved
I started taking one vorasidenib pill per day in 2021. I stayed on that trial for the next three years, traveling to UT MD Anderson once a month for scans and blood tests.
I did experience some mild side effects, such as stomach pain and indigestion, but the results of the clinical trial — including mine — were so good that they eventually led to the approval of vorasidenib for the treatment of astrocytoma by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in August 2024. I’ve been taking that drug ever since, and my cancer remains stable.
The work that Dr. Puduvalli and his team did to study this drug has given me hope. I'm grateful to know that he and other brain experts are leading the Cancer Neuroscience Program at UT MD Anderson and continue to make new advances to benefit patients like me.
Anticipating the opening of UT MD Anderson’s Austin location
I still travel to Houston every three to six months to see neuro-oncologist Dr. Nazanin Majd for follow-up tests. So, when I found out that UT MD Anderson was planning to open a new hospital in Austin in a few years, I was over-the-moon excited.
This will make life so much easier, not just for me, but for everyone in central Texas who doesn’t have the opportunity to travel to Houston for the best cancer treatment in the world.
To me, receiving high-quality cancer care is what matters most. So, it’s a no-brainer to drive to Houston if that’s what it takes to get it. But knowing that UT MD Anderson will soon be here in Austin is incredible. I can’t wait to have it closer to home.
Request an appointment at UT MD Anderson online or call 1-877-632-6789.
Why choose UT MD Anderson for brain tumor treatment?
Each patient who comes to UT MD Anderson’s Brain and Spine Center for brain tumor treatment receives customized care from some of the nation’s top experts.
From diagnosis through treatment and follow-up, you are the focus of a team of specialists who personalize your therapy for your unique situation.
We have one of the most active programs in the country for treatment of benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancer) brain tumors. This gives us a level of expertise and experience that can translate into more successful outcomes for many brain tumor patients.
Our team approach to care brings together more than 70 highly trained physicians from some 14 areas, all dedicated to brain tumor care or research. Each team is joined by a specially trained support staff. They all work together closely to be sure you receive individualized care.
Specialized, Comprehensive Brain Tumor Care
Successful brain tumor care depends on accurate diagnosis. At the Brain and Spine Center, four neuropathologists focus only on diagnosing brain and spine tumors. This sets us apart from many other cancer centers and helps us target each tumor for optimal outcomes.
Pioneering Brain Tumor Research
Brain tumor patients have more treatment options than ever thanks to several discoveries made at the Brain and Spine Center.
We are still testing and developing some novel treatments, such as berubicin, the first experimental anthracycline chemotherapy agent to penetrate the blood-brain barrier.
Meanwhile, medical institutions around the world have adopted some of the discoveries pioneered at MD Anderson as standard care, including temozolomide, an FDA-approved drug used to treat glioblastoma.
Take it one day at a time, and never give up.
UT MD Anderson Proton Therapy Center
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